Manichaeism may be understood as a rigorously dualistic, missionary religion that arose in the 3rd century CE within the Sasanian Persian Empire, in the broader region of Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Its founder, Mani (c. 216–276 CE), a Persian prophet born in Babylonia, claimed to stand in a prophetic lineage that included Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus, presenting his teaching as the final and complete revelation. Drawing deeply from Gnostic Christianity, Zoroastrian cosmology, and Buddhist elements, he sought to synthesize these diverse streams into a single, universal faith intended to supersede earlier traditions. This synthetic character gave Manichaeism both a strong doctrinal structure and a self-conscious sense of universality.

At the heart of Manichaean teaching lies an absolute, cosmic dualism between two eternal and opposing principles: Light and Darkness. Light is associated with goodness, spirit, and the divine, while Darkness is linked with evil, matter, and a demonic adversary. The material world is interpreted as the tragic outcome of an incursion of Darkness into the realm of Light, resulting in particles of Light becoming imprisoned within matter. Human beings are thus seen as composite creatures, bearing within themselves both light and dark elements. The spiritual task is to liberate the divine Light trapped in the world and in the human soul through knowledge (gnosis), ascetic discipline, ethical conduct, and prescribed ritual practice.

Mani’s own life and teaching gave the movement a distinct shape and historical trajectory. He reported receiving divine revelations from an early age and began publicly preaching in the Sasanian Empire, even presenting his doctrine at the royal court. His message, though influenced by earlier Gnostic movements, was unusually systematic and self-consciously universal, positioning itself as the fulfillment and correction of previous revelations. This clarity of vision, combined with an organized missionary impulse, enabled Manichaeism to spread rapidly across the Persian Empire, into the Roman world, and along the trade routes of Central Asia, eventually reaching as far as China.

Within this religious vision, the community itself mirrored the cosmic drama it proclaimed. Manichaeism distinguished between the Elect, who embraced a strict ascetic life including celibacy and vegetarianism, and the Hearers, lay followers who supported the Elect and observed less demanding practices. Through this division of roles, the community enacted a disciplined strategy for the gradual release of Light from the bonds of matter. Over many centuries, Manichaeism persisted as a significant religious presence across a vast geographical area, even as it eventually declined under the pressure of more dominant religious traditions.